Accents of English

Course title: Accents of English
Course coordinator: Dr Višnja Josipović Smojver
Instructor: Mirta Stamenić, assistant
ECTS credits : 5
Language: English
Semester: 2nd (summer)
Status: elective
Form of instruction: 2 seminar classes a week
Enrolment requirements: enrolment in the 8th semester
Exam: none

Student obligations: Each student will be obliged to choose and present one of the relevant topics at an agreed upon time during the course, and can do so individually or in pairs. Students will base their presentations on individually created corpora containing audio materials that illustrate examples of geographical and sociolinguistic variability of pronunciation in modern English. Students will also be required to regularly attend the course and other students’ presentations, and to actively participate in classes.

Basic concepts related to accent variability will be introduced at the beginning of the course including the difference between accents and dialects, the standard and non-standard varieties of English accents, and geographical, sociolinguistic and stylistic variability. Students will be acquainted with the methods of selecting and using existing corpora as well as creating their own corpus based on independently collected materials. The primary focus of this course will be non-standard and lesser-known accents of English which students will not have encountered in obligatory courses in the department of English.

Examples of accents that are presented in the course include: non-standard southern and northern British accents; the accents of the so-called Celtic languages (Welsh, Scottish and Irish); certain regionally recognisable accents of the USA and Canada; Australian and New Zealand accents; accents of the so-called Outer Circle, such as Indian and Pakistani English; accents of the Expanding Circle, such as the emerging accents of the Far East; lesser known but linguistically specific accents of varieties such as Liberian, Filipino or Fijian English.

Course objective: Becoming acquainted with the variability of English accents in the context of contemporary globalisation trends and developing the ability to recognise and linguistically describe its geographical and sociolinguistic varieties.

Week-by-week schedule:

  1. Introduction to the course; review of literature, course objectives and student obligations; accent vs. dialect; main features of accents; basic speech units: phone, phoneme and allophone; prosodic features: intonation, accent, rhythm, etc.
  2. Analysing accents: the main distinguishing features of vowels and consonants; phonetic alphabet (IPA) and phonetic transcription; speech chain; speech analysis methods, e.g., Praat phonetic analysis software.
  3. Accent variability: geographical, sociolinguistic, and stylistic variability.
  4. Standard British and American English accents: RP and General American.
  5. Presentation instructions (selecting and gathering audio materials, creating and using a corpus, describing important accent features).
  6. Examples of British English accents.
  7. Examples of accents of the USA and Canada.
  8. Examples of accents of Australia and New Zealand.
  9. Examples of accents of the Outer Circle.
  10. Examples of accents of the Expanding Circle.
  11. Optional topics for student presentations.
  12. Optional topics for student presentations.
  13. Optional topics for student presentations.
  14. Optional topics for student presentations.
  15. Optional topics for student presentations.

Required reading:

Collins, B., Mees, I. M., & Carley, P. (2019). Practical English phonetics and phonology: A resource book for students (4th ed.). London: Routledge.

Pavlović, N. & Stanojević, M. M. (2020). Znanstvena istraživanja jezika i prevođenja. FF Press.

Trudgill, P., & Hannah, J. (2017). International english: A guide to the varieties of standard English. London: Routledge.

Suggested reading:

Carley, P., & Mees, I. M. (2020). American English phonetics and pronunciation practice. New York, NY: Routledge.

Cube pronunciation dictionary. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://cubedictionary.org/

Kortmann, B., Upton, C., Schneider, E. W., Burridge, K., & Mesthrie, R. (2008). Varieties of English. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.

Lindsey, G. (2019). English after RP: Standard British pronunciation today. Palgrave Macmillan.

Other independently collected materials from different sources, according to the chosen presentation topic.

History of the English Language

Course title: History of the English Language
Summer
term
ECTS:
5 points
Course convenor
: Dr Mateusz Milan Stanojević
Lecturer: Dr Mateusz Milan Stanojević
Language
: English
Term
: Second term of graduate studies
Requisites:
Attending this course does not require any requisites, except being enrolled in the term in which the course is given.
Course format: 4 lecture classes a week
Objective: Gaining an insight into the development of the English language and its characteristics in relation to society and its development. This is a general educational course for all students of English.
Contents: The course gives an overview of social happenings and their interplay with the language use, from settling the British Isle to this day, as well as an overview of the most important factors that cause changes or stop them.

Week

Topic

1

Introduction, Syllabus, Aims, Grading. Expectations. Why study history of languages. Why study the history of English? Perspectives: multiple languages, single language. Internal and external history of languages. Types of changes that can be studied with examples: vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation. Factors that influence language change.

 

Types of changes that can be studied with examples: vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation. Factors that influence language change. How to study changes – methodologies and theories. Different importance given to different factors depending on the theory.

2

External history: reading from McIntire. the OE period, the ME period

 

External history: reading from McIntire. the ME, the EModE period.

3

OE: examples of OE texts: deciphering, understanding, translating. Grammatical characteristics of OE texts.

 

OE: examples of OE texts: deciphering, understanding, translating. Grammatical characteristics of OE texts. Comparison with PDE.

4

Case studies: reading OE texts, and focusing on a selected aspect based on research papers. Possible topics: OE literature and its role/importance; Everyday life in the period; Uses of tense/aspect; OE lexicon, OE pronunciation and the way it can be studied, etc.

 

Case studies: reading OE texts, and focusing on a selected aspect based on research papers.

5

Case studies: reading OE texts, and focusing on a selected aspect based on research papers.

 

Presenting case studies.

6

Presenting case studies.

 

Intermezzo: comparing different languages, language families, reconstruction.

7

Intermezzo: OE vs other Germanic languages; reconstructions and extensions

 

ME: external history (revision). Comparing ME and OE texts: basic similarities and differences.

8

Reading ME texts: understanding, deciphering, translating. Using ME dictionaries. Basic descriptions of ME vocabulary, syntax, pronunciation.

 

Case studies: ME. Grammar, metaphor, life, vocabulary change, grammaticalization. Using ME corpora and dictionaries.

9

Case studies: ME. Grammar, metaphor, life, vocabulary change, grammaticalization. Using ME corpora and dictionaries.

 

Case studies: ME. Grammar, metaphor, life, vocabulary change, grammaticalization. Using ME corpora and dictionaries.

10

Presenting case studies.

 

Presenting case studies.

11

Guest lecture: OE and ME literature and its importance for culture/literature today.

 

Revision of external history: Early Modern English. Caxton and printing. Emergence of Standard English.

12

Early Modern English: Shakespeare. Standardization: dictionaries, grammars. Prescriptivism

 

Late Modern English. Industrialization. Englishes, colonialism, pidgins.

13

Variation in constructions, tense use, vocabulary in the Modern English Period. Using COHA.

 

COHA: case studies.

14

COHA: case studies.

 

Language change/variation today: the influence of new technologies and globalization. Written vs. spoken language. Affordances. Case studies in language change: new technologies.

15

English as a Lingua Franca: a variety or variation in progress? The native speaker issue, the issue of native culture. The importance of power in establishing language and the language narrative.

 

Revision: key vocabulary, the whys and hows of language change.

Class methods and procedures:
Students should regularly attend classes and participate in class discussions.

Evaluation:
Exam 70 %
Seminar papers 30 %

Compulsory literature:
McIntyre, Dan. 2009. History of English. A resource book for students. Routledge. London.
– Baugh, Albert C. and Cable, Thomas. 2002. A History of the English Language. Fifth Edition. Routledge. London.

Additional literature:
– Freeborn, Dennis. 1998. From Old English to Standard English. Second Edition. Palgrave. Houndmills.

 

History of the English Language (archive)

Course title: History of the English Language
Summer
term
ECTS:
5 points
Course convenor
: Dr Mateusz Milan Stanojević
Lecturer: Dr Mateusz Milan Stanojević
Language
: English
Term
: Second term of graduate studies
Requisites:
Attending this course does not require any requisites, except being enrolled in the term in which the course is given.
Course format: 4 lecture classes a week
Objective: Gaining an insight into the development of the English language and its characteristics in relation to society and its development. This is a general educational course for all students of English.
Contents: The course gives an overview of social happenings and their interplay with the language use, from settling the British Isle to this day, as well as an overview of the most important factors that cause changes or stop them.

Week

Topic

1

Introduction, Syllabus, Aims, Grading. Expectations. Why study history of languages. Why study the history of English? Perspectives: multiple languages, single language. Internal and external history of languages. Types of changes that can be studied with examples: vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation. Factors that influence language change.

 

Types of changes that can be studied with examples: vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation. Factors that influence language change. How to study changes – methodologies and theories. Different importance given to different factors depending on the theory.

2

External history: reading from McIntire. the OE period, the ME period

 

External history: reading from McIntire. the ME, the EModE period.

3

OE: examples of OE texts: deciphering, understanding, translating. Grammatical characteristics of OE texts.

 

OE: examples of OE texts: deciphering, understanding, translating. Grammatical characteristics of OE texts. Comparison with PDE.

4

Case studies: reading OE texts, and focusing on a selected aspect based on research papers. Possible topics: OE literature and its role/importance; Everyday life in the period; Uses of tense/aspect; OE lexicon, OE pronunciation and the way it can be studied, etc.

 

Case studies: reading OE texts, and focusing on a selected aspect based on research papers.

5

Case studies: reading OE texts, and focusing on a selected aspect based on research papers.

 

Presenting case studies.

6

Presenting case studies.

 

Intermezzo: comparing different languages, language families, reconstruction.

7

Intermezzo: OE vs other Germanic languages; reconstructions and extensions

 

ME: external history (revision). Comparing ME and OE texts: basic similarities and differences.

8

Reading ME texts: understanding, deciphering, translating. Using ME dictionaries. Basic descriptions of ME vocabulary, syntax, pronunciation.

 

Case studies: ME. Grammar, metaphor, life, vocabulary change, grammaticalization. Using ME corpora and dictionaries.

9

Case studies: ME. Grammar, metaphor, life, vocabulary change, grammaticalization. Using ME corpora and dictionaries.

 

Case studies: ME. Grammar, metaphor, life, vocabulary change, grammaticalization. Using ME corpora and dictionaries.

10

Presenting case studies.

 

Presenting case studies.

11

Guest lecture: OE and ME literature and its importance for culture/literature today.

 

Revision of external history: Early Modern English. Caxton and printing. Emergence of Standard English.

12

Early Modern English: Shakespeare. Standardization: dictionaries, grammars. Prescriptivism

 

Late Modern English. Industrialization. Englishes, colonialism, pidgins.

13

Variation in constructions, tense use, vocabulary in the Modern English Period. Using COHA.

 

COHA: case studies.

14

COHA: case studies.

 

Language change/variation today: the influence of new technologies and globalization. Written vs. spoken language. Affordances. Case studies in language change: new technologies.

15

English as a Lingua Franca: a variety or variation in progress? The native speaker issue, the issue of native culture. The importance of power in establishing language and the language narrative.

 

Revision: key vocabulary, the whys and hows of language change.

Class methods and procedures:
Students should regularly attend classes and participate in class discussions.

Evaluation:
Exam 70 %
Seminar papers 30 %

Compulsory literature:
– Baugh, Albert C. and Cable, Thomas (2002), A History of the English
– Language
. Fifth Edition. Routledge. London.

– Barber, Charles (1993), The English Language. A Historical Introduction.
– Cambridge University Press. Cambridge
– Crystal, David. (1995), The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of the English
– Language
, Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. (Chapters 2 &3; 7)

Additional literature:
– Baker, Peter (2003). Introduction to Old English. Blackwell publishing.
– The Cambridge History of the English Language
. Volumes I – III. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

– Crystal, David. (2004), The Stories of English. Allen Lane, Penguin. London
– Fennell, Barbara. (2001), A History of English, A Sociolinguistic Approach. Blackwell Publishing. Cornwall.
– Freeborn, Dennis. (1998), From Old English to Standard English. Second Edition. Palgrave. Handmills
– Görlach, Manfred. (1994), The Linguistic History of English. Palgrave Macmillan.
– Görlach, Manfred. (1991), Introduction to Early Modern English. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
– Hogg, Richard. (2002), An Introduction to Old English. Edinburgh University Press. Edinburgh
– Horobin, Simon i Smith, Jeremy (2002), An Introduction to Middle English. Edinburgh University Press. Edinburgh.
– Millward, C.M. (1996), A Biography of the English Language. Boston: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.
– Pyles, Thomas i Algeo, John. (1993), The Origins and Development of the English Language. Fourth Edition. Ted Buchholz. Boston.
– Smith, Jeremy. (1999) Essentials of Early English. Routledge


Continue reading History of the English Language (archive)

Discourse analysis – language of communication technologies

Course title:   Discourse analysis – language of communication technologies
Name of course coordinator:
  Prof. Milena Žic Fuchs
Name of lecturer: 
Asst. Prof. Marina Grubišić
Number of credits:   
5
Language of instruction:
English
Semester:
  2nd (spring)
Status:
  elective
Type of course:
  2 periods, seminar
Prerequisites:
  All basic linguistics disciplines
Assessment method:
Individually or in small groups, students write a seminar paper (about 20 pages)
Course contents:
  At the beginning of the seminar students are introduced to various phenomena on the suprasentential level, or text. The elements discussed are those that influence the basic characteristics of text, particularly the extratextual ones such as context of situation, context of culture, Gricean maxims, sender, receiver, as well as intratextual elements, those belonging to the category of text cohesion. Further, texts from the domain of communication technologies are analyzed with an aim to examine to what extent the traditional discourse analysis is able to explain the phenomena arising in the new modes of communication. ‘Written’ and ‘spoken’ texts are compared in order to point out the differences found in the language of communication technologies. Examples are analyzed from both English and Croatian to observe cultural differences.
Objectives of the course:
   The objective of this seminar is to introduce students to the basic notions of text analysis, i.e. the suprasentential level. Theoretical knowledge is applied to the specific characteristics of texts found in communication technologies. The analysis of these texts enables an insight into the creation of new communication rules and rituals.

Obavezatna literatura:
Brown
, G. i Yule, G. (1983), Discourse Analysis. Cambridge University Press.
Crystal
, D. (2000), Language and the Internet. Cambridge University Press.
Levinson,
Stephen C. (1983), Pragmatics. Cambridge University Press

Recommended reading (optional):  

Searle, John R. (1969), Speech Acts – An Essay in the Philosophy of Language, Cambridge University Press
Austin
, J. L. (1962), How to do Things with Words, Oxford University Press

History of the English language (archive)

Course title: History of the English Language
Summer
term: 2012-2013
ECTS: 
5 points
Course convenor
:    Professor Milena Žic Fuchs
Lecturer
: Vlatko Broz
Language
: English
Term
: Second term of graduate studies
Requisites: 
Attending this course does not require any requisites, except being enrolled in the term in which the course is given.
Course format: 4 lecture classes a week
Objective: Gaining an insight into the development of the English language and its characteristics in relation to society and its development. This is a general educational course for all students of English.
Contents: The course gives an overview of social happenings and their interplay with the language use, from settling the British Isle to this day, as well as an overview of the most important factors that cause changes or stop them.

Week Topic
1 Introduction. Periodization. Language Types. Indo-European Languages. Germanic Languages. Old English.
2 Comparative Method. Grimm’s Law and Proto-Germanic.Old English Spelling and Phonology.Old English Names and Old English Dialects. Runes.
3 Old English Morphology – paradigms (nouns, verbs, pronouns).
4 Old English Lexicon and Semantics, Scandinavian influence
5 Old English Syntax and Verb Phrase
6 Translating Old English texts
(Aelfric, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Alfred and Beowulf).
7 Middle English. Introduction.Consequences of Norman Invasion. New phonemes. Lost inflections.
8 Middle English dialects.Orthography. Word formation.
9 Middle English Vocabulary. Loanwords. Syntax.
10 Reading Middle English texts (The Peterborough Chronicle, The Canterbury Tales, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight).
11 Early Modern English. Caxton and printing.Emergence of Standard English.
12 The Great Vowel Shift.Grammaticalization.
13 Rise of prescriptivism. Dictionaries and Grammars.Vocabulary.
14 Shakespeare. Status of English. The rise of world standard Englishes.Late Modern English.
15 Modern EnglishRevisionExam

Class methods and procedures:
Students should regularly attend classes and participate in class discussions.

Evaluation:   
Exam      70 %
Seminar papers    30 %

Compulsory literature:
– Baugh, Albert C. and Cable, Thomas (2002), A History of the English
– Language
. Fifth Edition. Routledge. London.

– Barber, Charles (1993), The English Language. A Historical Introduction.
– Cambridge University Press. Cambridge
– Crystal, David. (1995), The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of the English
– Language
, Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. (Chapters 2 &3; 7)

Additional literature:
– Baker, Peter (2003). Introduction to Old English. Blackwell publishing.
– The Cambridge History of the English Language
. Volumes I – III. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

– Crystal, David. (2004), The Stories of English. Allen Lane, Penguin. London
– Fennell, Barbara. (2001), A History of English, A Sociolinguistic Approach. Blackwell Publishing. Cornwall.
– Freeborn, Dennis. (1998), From Old English to Standard English. Second Edition. Palgrave. Handmills
– Görlach, Manfred. (1994), The Linguistic History of English. Palgrave Macmillan.
– Görlach, Manfred. (1991), Introduction to Early Modern English. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
– Hogg, Richard. (2002), An Introduction to Old English. Edinburgh University Press. Edinburgh
– Horobin, Simon i Smith, Jeremy (2002), An Introduction to Middle English. Edinburgh University Press. Edinburgh.
– Millward, C.M. (1996), A Biography of the English Language. Boston: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.
– Pyles, Thomas i Algeo, John. (1993), The Origins and Development of the English Language. Fourth Edition. Ted Buchholz. Boston.
– Smith, Jeremy. (1999) Essentials of Early English. Routledge


Continue reading History of the English language (archive)

Cognitive linguistics

Course title: Cognitive linguistics
ECTS credits:
5

Instructor:  Professor Milena Žic Fuchs
Language: English
Semester: I or II
Uvjeti: Položen ispit iz Sintakse i Semantike engleskoga jezika
Oblik nastave: 4 sata predavanja
CILJ KOLEGIJA: Cilj je ovoga kolegija upoznati studente s osnovnim postavkama kognitivne lingvistike, točnije kognitivne semantike i kognitivne gramatike.
SADRŽAJ KOLEGIJA: Kolegij se uvodi kraćim prikazom Američke lingvistike, tj. doprinosima Boasa, Sapira, Bloomfielda i Whorfa, odnosno točnije prikazom njihovih viđenja odnosa jezika, kulture i mišljenja. Tragom te tradicije uvode se temeljne postavke kognitivne lingvistike s posebnim težištem na pojmovima prototipa i kategorije. Nadalje, obrađuju se osnovne postavke kognitivne gramatike, termini poput sheme i domene, i posebna se pažnja posvećuje usporedbi strukturalističkih, transformaciono-generativnih i kognitivno gramatičkih pristupa gramatičkim pojavnostima. Gore navedene teorijske postavke analiziraju se na primjerima iz engleskoga i hrvatskoga jezika.

Program nastave po tjednima (syllabus)

Week Topic
1. Cognitive linguistics and its links with Cognitive Science.
2. Cognitive linguistics and its links with early American linguistics (Boas, Sapir, Whorf)
3. Cognitive linguistics and its links with early American linguistics (Boas, Sapir, Whorf)
4. Categories – classical and cognitive linguistic views. Relationship between TG grammar and cognitive linguistics. Notion of prototype.
5. Categories – classical and cognitive linguistic views. Relationship between TG grammar and cognitive linguistics. Notion of prototype.
6. Scenes and frames semantics and their relevance for cognitive linguistics.
7. Schemas and domains and their relevance for category organization.
8. Preparation of research topic. Discussion of methodology and aims.
9. Basic notions of Cognitive Grammar.
10. Cognitive Grammar.
11. Discussion of links with theoretical constructs in classical European structuralism. Construction grammars.
12. Submit research results. Discussion of obtained data.
13. Synthesis and theoretical interpretation of research results.
14. reserved for follow-up of any of the above topics
revision
15. FINAL TEST

NAČIN RADA:
Studenti trebaju redovito pohađati nastavu i aktivno sudjelovati u nastavi. Tijekom semestra radit će se i zajednički istraživački projekt u kojem su studenti dužni aktivno sudjelovati.

STUDENTSKE OBAVEZE I ELEMENTI VREDNOVANJA:
Gradivo se predaje po cjelinama, uz obvezatne rasprave. Obvezatan rad na istraživačkom projektu te položen pismeni ispit.

OBAVEZNA LITERATURA (odabrana poglavlja i stranice):
Croft
. W. i Cruse, Alen, D. (2004), Cognitive Linguistics. Cambridge University Press

Dirven, R. i Verspoor, M. (1998), Cognitive Exploration of Language and Linguistics. John Benjamins Publishing Company.

DODATNA LITERATURA:
Lakoff
, G. (1987), Women, Fire and Dangerous Things, What Categories Reveal about the Mind. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press

Langacker, R. W. (1987), Foundations of Cognitive Grammar: Theoretical Prerequisites, Volume I. Stanford University Press


Continue reading Cognitive linguistics

Academic Writing 2

Course name: Academic Writing 2
Instructors:
Dr Alexander Douglas Hoyt, senior lecturer ; Dr Kristijan NIkolić, senior lecturer; Tea Raše
ECTS
points: 5
Language of instruction
: English
Semester
: II. (summer)
Prerequisites:
Academic writing 1 (a pass mark)
Form:
combination of workshop and seminar, 4 hours a week
Grading/marking
: active participation in the class, written assignments, final paper, oral presentations.
AIMS:
The aim of this course is to introduce basics of academic writing, writing research papers in the field of linguistics and oral presentations. Students will learn to analytically read and write research papers. They will also learn the basics of academic presentation of these papers through their own presentations.
CONTENT:
Students will write smaller research papers on various topics from the field of linguistics. They will orally present these papers in class. Students will also write a longer research paper (15 pages) that will have to be handed in by the end of May. The instructor will tell them more about it. The final paper will also be orally presented.
MORE ABOUT THE COURSE:
This course is a seminar and that means that the class will be interactive. Students will often work in smaller groups and they will criticize and analyze each other’s work. The instructor will be a moderator of these discussions. Students must attend the classes regularly and they must be prepared to actively participate in discussions. Students must write assignments regularly and prepare oral presentations. Written assignments and presentations will be discussed in the class.

LITERATURE:
– Wray, A., and Bloomer, A. (2006) Projects in Linguistics: A Practical Guide to Researching Language.
– Girbaldi, J. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, The Modern Language Association of America

 

Linguistic seminar: Semantics

Course title: Linguistic seminar: Semantics
ECTS credits5
Course coordinator:  Professor Milena Žic Fuchs
Instructor: Assoc. Prof. Mateusz-Milan Stanojević; Dr. Janja Čulig Suknaić, postdoc
Language:   English
Semester:   2nd
Form of Instruction: 2 seminars per week
Objectives: The aim of this course is to introduce students to the analysis of meaning. Upon its completion, students will be able to produce their own semantic descriptions within a set theoretical framework, and will be able to critically evaluate certain methods used in semantic analysis.

Course contents: This course is designed to provide students with opportunities for the practical application of their semantic analysis skills acquired in earlier courses. Various types of meaning analyses will be practiced, set both within structuralist and cognitive-functional frameworks. This will include meaning relations such as synonymy and polysemy, approaches to semantic analysis such as componential analysis and the theory of semantic fields, and problems of dictionary definitions. In addition to the lexical level, the level of “semantics of syntactic constructions” will also be dealt with.

Form of Instruction: Student participation is required. In the course of the semester, three main topics will be dealt with. Students will be required to write a research paper on a topic selected in consultation with the instructor.

Examination: Attendance, participation and the research paper

Required reading (selected excerpts from):

Selected chapters from:
Cruse, D.A. 1986. Lexical Semantics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Additional reading:
Cruse
, D.A. and W. Croft. (2004), Cognitive Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Dirven, R. and M. H. Verspoor. (2004), Cognitive Exploration of Language and Linguistics (Cognitive Linguistics in Practice) 2nd edition. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co.
Lehrer, A. (1974), Semantic Fields and Lexical Structure. Amsterdam/London: North-Holland Publishing Company.
Lyons, J. (1977), Semantics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Nida, E. A. (1975), Componential Analysis of Meaning. The Hague: Mouton Publishers.